#465 - Polar Polygons
The kernel of a polygon is defined by the set of points from which the entire polygon's boundary is visible. We define a polar polygon as a polygon for which the origin is strictly contained inside its kernel.
For this problem, a polygon can have collinear consecutive vertices. However, a polygon still cannot have self-intersection and cannot have zero area.
For example, only the first of the following is a polar polygon (the kernels of the second, third, and fourth do not strictly contain the origin, and the fifth does not have a kernel at all):
Notice that the first polygon has three consecutive collinear vertices.
Let \(P(n)\) be the number of polar polygons such that the vertices \((x, y)\) have integer coordinates whose absolute values are not greater than \(n\).
Note that polygons should be counted as different if they have different set of edges, even if they enclose the same area. For example, the polygon with vertices \([(0,0),(0,3),(1,1),(3,0)]\) is distinct from the polygon with vertices \([(0,0),(0,3),(1,1),(3,0),(1,0)]\).
For example, \(P(1) = 131\), \(P(2) = 1648531\), \(P(3) = 1099461296175\) and \(P(343) \bmod 1\,000\,000\,007 = 937293740\).
Find \(P(7^{13}) \bmod 1\,000\,000\,007\).
Problem text © Project Euler, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original: projecteuler.net/problem=465. Published Sunday, 30th March 2014, 05:00 am. Solved by 275 members at time of mirroring.
Why this is useful
Algorithmic Development. Optimal substructure and state-space reasoning are exactly how American-option pricing and optimal execution are solved (Phases 13, 16).
We classify relevance honestly - not every Euler problem is a trading application.
Prerequisites
Lessons that prepare you:
17.1 Python for Quants: NumPy, pandas, and Vectorization · 19.14 Computational Complexity, Feasibility Estimation, and Proving Algorithms Correct · 19.7 Dynamic Programming: Memoization and Tabulation · 19.9 Graph Algorithms: BFS, DFS, Dijkstra, and Minimum Spanning Trees · 19.10 Search: Backtracking, Branch-and-Bound, Binary Search, Meet-in-the-Middle · 3.1 Vectors, Multivariable Functions, and Level Sets
Recommended stepping-stone problems: #892 · #372 · #403
Concepts: computational-geometry geometry graph-theory brute-force-reduction
Likely techniques: hashing memoization
Learning mode
Pick how much scaffolding you want. Your choice is remembered per problem.
Understand the problem
- What exactly is the input to problem 465? Is it a bound (7^13), a supplied dataset, or a definition you must generate from?
- What is the required output - restate it precisely: a single residue (the answer is reduced modulo a given number, so keep everything in modular arithmetic from the start).
- Which objects exactly are in scope, and which are excluded by the wording (strict vs non-strict inequality, 'distinct', 'proper', 'below' vs 'up to')?
- What do the arguments of P(n), P(1) mean, and what is the value's type (count, sum, probability)?
- What are the edge cases: the smallest legal object, zero/one, ties, and the boundary at exactly 7^13?
- Why is brute force hard HERE specifically? Estimate the number of candidates implied by 7^13 and the cost of testing one.
- Which computational-geometry fact would, if true, collapse the search - and can you state it as a testable claim before you look for a proof?
Predict & plan (before you code)
- Predict the strategy: in one sentence, what will your solution do? (The classification says computational-geometry / memoization - do you agree, and why?)
- Predict the complexity of your intended method in terms of N = 7^13, and the wall-clock time you expect. Write both down now.
- Predict the key data structure: what is stored, keyed by what, and how large will it get at full scale?
- Predict the failure mode: what is most likely to break - an off-by-one on the bound, a definition misread, precision, or memory?
- Predict the output of the small case from rung 3 BEFORE running it (the statement says: "Note that polygons should be counted as different if they have different set of edges, even if they enclose the same area.") - then run it. A surprise here is worth more than an hour of debugging later.
Scratchpad
Mathematical notes, formulas, pseudocode, hypotheses, complexity notes. Saved automatically with your progress.
Python workbench
Real Python (Pyodide) in a sandboxed Web Worker - no network, no filesystem, no DOM access. Ctrl/Cmd+Enter runs. Escape leaves the editor. Stop terminates the worker.
Check your answer
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Progressive hints
Optimization
You have a correct answer. That is the start of the learning, not the end.
- Reduce the time complexity. What is the bottleneck, and what mathematical fact removes it?
- Reduce memory. Can you stream, or keep only the last k states?
- Replace brute force with a closed form, a sieve, a recurrence, or a symmetry argument.
- Prove the optimized version computes the same thing.
- Compare two implementations and time them.
Explain it
Which step of your solution were you least confident about, and what evidence would settle it?
What did you try first, and what specifically made you abandon it - a proof, a timing, or a wrong small-case answer?
Where did the computational-geometry structure do the real work? Name the single observation that collapsed the search space.
Could you have reached the memoization idea faster? Which words in the statement were pointing at it, and did you notice them?
What was the bug that cost you the most time, and what CLASS of bug was it (off-by-one, definition misread, precision, state under-specified)?
How would your solution change if the bound 7^13 were multiplied by 1000? Does it survive, or does it need a different idea?
What is the honest complexity of what you wrote (not what you intended), and where is the remaining slack?
Which problem you have already solved is this most similar to, and what is the shared skeleton - is it really 'memoization' underneath?
State the transferable technique in one sentence, without mentioning this problem's story at all.
Self-assess (mastery is not a correct number)
You reach Mastered only when you have solved it, rated yourself at least Solid across the dimensions, and written a real explanation.
Confidence
Low confidence schedules this problem for spaced review, even if you solved it.
Mastery check
- Variation: change the bound (or a rule) in the statement. Does your method still work? What breaks first?
- Constraints: if the limit were 10× larger, which step fails, and what would you replace it with?
- Related problem: #892 · #372 · #403
- Transfer: where else does this technique appear? Name a lesson and a real computational setting.
- Spaced re-attempt: come back after the review interval and re-solve it with no hints.